第一章Introduction绪论
1.语言学的定义definition of linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language but languages in general.
“study”的意思是调查，研究，“scientific”是指研究语言的方法。对语言进行科学的研究，最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究，并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。The word“study”means investigate or examine and the word“scientific”refers to the way in which it is studied.A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of language data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
语言学研究的科学性表现在语言学家的研究是以真实语言资料为基础，在对初步假设反复进行验证后才做出结论的。first language facts,then hypotheses formulate
语言学中的数据和理论也是一种辩证的、相互补充的关系
In linguistics,data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.
2.语言学的研究范畴scope of linguistics
语言包含多方面，语言学家不可能一下子面面俱到，每次只能集中研究一个方面。Linguists have to concentrate on one aspect of language at once since language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets.
1A.普通语言学：把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究；他的研究对象主要是能够应用于所有语言研究的基本概念、理论、描述、模型和方法等。
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.
2B.语音学：对语言交际中声音的研究(首先引起来语言学校的注意是声音sounds)
The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.
3C.音系学/音位学：语言交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式
The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called phonology.
4D.形态学：(语素排列构成语词)对语素排列组合方式的研究
The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.(The study of internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed)
5E.句法学：语词按照一定的规则结合构成句子，对这些规则的研究，称为句法学
The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.(The study of sentence structure)
6F.语义学：对语言意义的研究
The study of meaning in language is called semantics.
现代7G.语用学：对语言使用环境的研究
The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.
语言的研究和其他社会研究的分支建立联系，从而导致了交叉学科分支研究的产生
The study of language has come to establish close links with other branches of social studies,such a
s sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.
8H.社会语言学：语言与社会的关系，核心是：对语言的社会特点及其相互关系的研究(语言反应社会背景，社会原则决定什么场合使用何种语言，社会变迁及语言变迁)
The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.
9I.心理语言学：语言和心理的相互关系(运用语言时的心理过程；小时候如何习得母语；用什么方式处理我们接收的信息)language to psychology
The study of language with reference to the mind is called psycholinguistics.
10J.应用语言学：语言学研究的发现经常被应用于解决一些诸如言语能力恢复之类的实际问题，对这种应用范畴的研究，称为应用语言学。
Linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability.The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.
狭义上讲，应用语言学是指语言理论和原则在语言教学中的应用，尤其是外语学习和第二语言教学中的应用。
But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second language.
11K.其他分支：
人类语言学：anthropological linguistics神经语言学:neurological linguistics
数理语言学:mathematical linguistics计算语言学:computational linguistics
3.语言学中的几对基本概念some important distinctions
1A.规定性和描述性prescriptive and descriptive
Prescriptive：对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则，即告诉人们什么该说，什么不该说lay down rules for“correct”behavior to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.比如老师教学生语法grammar
Descriptive：对人们使用的语言进行描述和分析describe and analyze the language people actually use(现代语言学大多是描述性的modern linguistics is mostly descriptive)
2B.共时性和历时性synchronic[sɪŋ'krɒnɪk]diachronic多研究共时性Synchronic共时：对处于某一时间点的语言所作的描述description of a language at some point in time比如莎士比亚时期英语特点的研究
Diachronic历时：随时间推移而发生变化的语言description of a language as it changes through time莎士比亚以来语言变化的研究
3C.口头语和书面语speech and writing口语先于书面语出现
人类交际中的两大主要媒介，现在语言学比较看重的是口头语言，过去比较重视书面,”大家”Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary.
4D.语言和言语langue[lɑŋɡ]and parole[pə'rəul]
20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔F·de Saussure提出，法语单词
语言：某一特定的语言社区中的所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统
the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community 言语：语言在实际应用中的具体体现the realization of langue in actual use
语言学家应该从言语中把语言提炼出来，也就是说应该发现那些指导语言实际应用的规则并使之成为语言学研究的主题。What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole,to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study in linguistics.
5E.语言能力和语言运用competence and performance
20世纪50年代末，美国乔姆斯基N.Chomsky提出
转换-生成语法，乔姆斯基在1957年提出transformational-generative grammar
能力：一个理想的语言使用者所具有的有关其使用语言规则的知识
Competence:the ideal user`s knowledge of the rules of his language
运用Performance：这种知识在语言交际中的实际运用
the actual realization of this language in linguistics communication
语言学家应该研究的是说话者的能力，而不是他对语言的实际应用，后者随意性太强而不能进行研究。What linguists should study is the ideal speaker`s competence,not his performance,which is too haphazard to be studied.
4.语言的定义语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统
Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1A.语言是一个系统，按照一定的规则rules组合在一起，所以”iblk””been he wounded has”都是不被接受的表达方式
2B.语言是任意的，不同的语言使用不同的词语表达相同的事物。莎翁罗密欧与朱丽叶中的”玫瑰换个名词问起来还是香的”就是语言任意性的体现
The famous quotation from Shakespeare`s play Romeo and Juliet“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”illustrates the conventional nature of language. 3C.语言是有声音的，是因为对所有语言而言，声音是最主要的媒介。
Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.
4D.The ultimate objective of language is to convey meaning.语言的最终目的是表达含义
5.语言的甄别性特征design features：或称识别性特征不分先后，没有谁更重要
甄别性特征是指人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的那些特征。通过语言和动物交际体系的对比，我们可以更好的把握语言的本质。
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.By comparing language with animal communication systems,we can have a better understanding of the nature of language.
美国语言学家Charles Hocker提出12种特征，这里我们讨论5种,
1A.武断性Arbitrariness：或称任意性，声音和意义之间没有任何逻辑性
There is no logical connection between sounds and meanings.
不同的语言使用不同的声音表达相同的事物different sounds are used to refer to the same thing
武断性是语言高级化的标志，使得语言能够有无数途径来生产无穷无尽的表达方式
The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source if expressions.
2B.创造性Productivity：语言的使用者能够利用语言合成和解释一些全新的符号，创造性是人类语言特有的
Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Productivity is unique to human language.
3C.双重性Duality：语言是由两套结构或者两个层面组成的一个系统，较低层次是声音，较高层次是意义。也叫结构双重性double articulation，使语言使用者能就其所知谈论任何事情Language is a system which consists of two sets of structure or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.
4D.位移性Displacement：语言可以用来表达无论过去、现在或将来的，不管真是的还是凭空想象的，在现场的或在非常遥远的地方的任何事情。换句话说，语言可以用来表达不在说话现场所发生的情况。
Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present or future,or in far-away places.Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of speaker.
5E.文化传递性Cultural transmission：尽管人类的语言能力有一定的遗传基础，但并非所有的语言细节都能通过遗传获得，而是要通过教或学才得以完成。
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.问答题：
1.What is Saussure`s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky`s distinction between competence and performance?How are they different?索绪尔和乔姆斯基理论的相同和不同之处
A.Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language,Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community,and parole as the realization of langue in actual use.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of his language,and performance as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic
communication.
B.Both made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study.Both think
what linguists should do is to study the abstract language system rather than the actual use of language and to discover the rules governing the actual use of language.
C.Saussures distinction and Chomsky's differ at least in one aspect.That is Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions,whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
2.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
现代语言学与传统语法的不同
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in two ways.
A.Traditional grammar is based on"high"(literary,religious)written language. Modern linguistics studies whatever occurs in the language people use and mainly spoken language.
B.Traditional grammar is prescriptive.It tells the learners what they should say,or what is supposed to be correct usage.On the other hand,modern linguistics is more descriptive.Linguistic study is supposed to describe the language people actually use,no matter if it is“correct”or not.
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